משוב עמיתים

Formative Assessment versus Summative Assessment

According to Black and Wiliam (1998), distinguishing between different types of assessment enables teachers to design instruction in alignment with their pedagogical goals. Assessment is considered formative when it occurs throughout the learning process and includes feedback and opportunities for improvement. This type of assessment provides teachers and learners with continuous information about learning, which can serve as a basis for feedback, for improving learning processes, and for adapting subsequent teaching and learning. In contrast, summative assessment takes place at the end of the learning process and provides an overall picture of achievement, serving primarily for measurement purposes.

Community of Learners

The “Community of Learners” model, as described by Brown and Campione (1994), is an approach to learning grounded in the assumption that learning is optimized when learners engage in collaborative inquiry. In this model, all participants contribute knowledge, pose questions, provide feedback, and respond to others’ insights. Within this approach, the teacher’s role shifts from a transmitter of knowledge to a facilitator of processes (guided discovery), including inquiry, classroom discourse, and feedback. Learners are not merely consumers of knowledge but active partners in its construction. Through guided discovery, they can explore content independently while developing critical thinking, reflectivity, and collaborative learning skills. This approach enables the integration of peer feedback as an integral component of the learning process, rather than merely a tool for evaluating final products.

Peer Feedback

Feedback among learners constitutes a powerful pedagogical tool both for improving learners’ understanding and for building a learning community. This process requires students to exercise judgment, identify relevant criteria, and formulate recommendations for improvement. According to Topping (1998), who examined peer assessment in higher education contexts, peer feedback enhances learners’ sense of self-efficacy, strengthens communal responsibility, and encourages the acceptance of constructive criticism. The effectiveness of peer feedback depends on appropriate guidance, clearly articulated criteria, and a safe and inclusive classroom culture. In some cases, peer feedback may contribute more to learners than feedback provided by teachers.

Additional Resources
Nevo, D. (2003). Formative Assessment in the Classroom. Tel Aviv: Mofet Institute.

Visible Thinking website of Project Zero, Harvard University: Visible Thinking

Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Random House.

Ritchhart, R., Church, M., & Morrison, K. (2011). Making Thinking Visible: How to Promote Engagement, Understanding, and Independence for All Learners. Jossey-Bass.

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards Through Classroom Assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139-148.

Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1994). Guided Discovery in a Community of Learners. In K. McGilly (Ed.), Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practice (pp. 229-270). MIT Press.

Topping, K. J. (1998). Peer assessment between students in colleges and universities. Review of Educational Research, 68(3), 249–276. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543068003249